As Christianity grew during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, various groups broke from the church and altered the orthodox teachings of the Christian faith. Below are three of the most prominent heretical belief systems from this time period.i. Gnosticism
Gnosticism was a large movement that gained a lot of ground in the early centuries of the Christian faith. Gnostics believed that they possessed a mystical knowledge that was reserved for those with true understanding. They believed that this knowledge was the key to salvation.
They also believed that matter is evil and spirit is good. Therefore, the goal of Gnosticism was to escape from the body and material world to which one was exiled. As a result, they denied the incarnation, that teaches that Christ came to earth and took on flesh.
ii. Marcionism ( AD 137)
Marcion, whose father was a bishop, was familiar with the beliefs and practices of the Christian faith. He, however, developed an understanding of Christianity that was both anti-Jewish and anti-material. In an attempt to make Christianity more acceptable with Greek thought, Marcion rationalized it cutting it loose from its Jewish heritage. He also started a church with his own bishops that taught from his own version of Scripture. His church rivaled many orthodox churches.
Marcion believed that because the world is evil, its creator must also be evil. He also taught that Jehovah, the evil creator and God of the Old Testament, disobeyed the Father who wanted a strictly spiritual world. Jehovah’s disobedience involved creating a world made up of human beings and matter. Marcion also believed and taught that against Jehovah and far above him is the God of the Christians who is a loving God not seeking strict obedience from his followers but desires for his love to be reciprocated. Marcion often spoke against judgment and wrath because he believed God to be a loving God who would simply forgive all injustices.
He also believed that because the Old Testament contained the words of an inferior God, it must not be read, nor should any other Jewish book in the New Testament. This resulted in him compiling his own list of books. His list included the epistles of Paul and the Gospel of Luke, although he omitted any reference made by Paul or Luke from the Old Testament claiming they had been added. He also either rejected or radically reinterpreted the doctrines of creation, the incarnation, and the resurrection.
iii. Montanism (AD 170s)
In the AD 170s, a Christian leader by the name of Montanus claimed to have new revelation from God. He and his followers claimed that their teachings and prophesies either fulfilled or superseded that of the Apostles. This group also had an unorthodox view of the Trinity. Montanists were modalists, meaning that they did not believe that God was one in essence and three in person, but one in essence and in person who existed in different manifestations throughout history.
THE EVANGELICAL RESPONSE
These controversies forced the church to clarify its beliefs. The two primary ways the church did this was by forming the cannon and writing the “Apostles’ Creed."
i. The Formation of the Canon
Against Marcion and the Gnostics, the church reaffirmed the books of the Old Testament and what should and should not be included in the New Testament. They also wanted to demonstrate to the Montanists that biblical revelation is closed. Although Marcion's list was the first, it is important to understand that there were a large number of books already circulating that were believed to be inspired by God. In other words, the books of the Bible are not given authority from the church, but are recognized as authoritative by the church. Evidence for this is the fact that Marcion had to omit books from his list, which made him an extremely controversial figure.
ii. The Writing of the Apostles’ Creed
The writing of the “Apostles’ Creed” was another way the church responded against heresy. This profession of faith set the church apart from heretical groups like the Gnostics, Marcions, and Montanists. This Creed was written from a list of questions that would often be asked to candidates for baptism. Below is a sample of what might be heard prior to baptism in the second and third century.
Do you believe in God the Father almighty?
Do you believe in Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who was born of the Holy Ghost and of Mary the virgin, who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and died, and rose again at the third day, living from among the dead, and ascended unto heaven and sat at the right of the Father, and will come to judge the quick and the dead? Do you believe in the Holy Ghost, the holy church, and the resurrection of the flesh?
DEFENDERS OF ORTHODOXY
Because the church was facing false accusations and persecution by the pagans and due to the growing popularity of these various heretical groups during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, many believers felt a need to defend the Christian faith. Various apologists (those who explain and/or defend Christianity) from the 2nd and 3rd centuries are shown below.
i. Justin Martyr (AD 100-165)
Justin taught Christian philosophy in Rome and addressed the ridiculous accusations made by Pagans against Christianity. A couple of these accusations were that Christian gatherings included sexually immoral practices and cannibalism taking literally the wording used during the Eucharist. Justin's boldness resulted in him being arrested and killed by Marcus Aurelius in AD 165.
ii. Iranaeus of Lyons (AD 140-202)
Iranaeus was a pastor who believed his primary role was to equipp believers and refute heresy. When refuting Gnosticism, he taught that God is a loving being who does not create the world and humankind out of necessity nor by mistake— as Gnostics claimed—but out of a desire to have a creation to love and to lead. He also repeatedly taught that God is in the process of redeeming humanity and making his people more like himself.
iii. Clement of Alexandria (AD 150-215)
Clement was born in Athens and was raised by pagans. He was not a pastor, but rather a thinker and a searcher. He said that what the Old Testament was for the Jews, Greek Philosophy was for the Gentiles. He believed that partial truth could be found in the Philosophical teachings of philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. Clement created a Christian philosophy of such depth and detail that many pagans had difficulty refuting it.
iv. Tertullian (AD 160-225)
Tertullian believed, unlike Clement, that pagan philosophy and Christianity were completely incompatible. He taught that pagan philosophy is the source of all kinds of heresy. He thought that if a philosopher was to come to Christ, he would have to completely abandon his old beliefs. He also thought speculation was a waste of time. In fact, he taught that a Christian who is still searching for further truth lacks faith.
v. Origen (AD 185-254)
Origen was Clement’s greatest disciple, and also believed that philosophy and Christianity were compatible. He taught many pagans and was thought to enlighten them. He was very aware of the danger of abandoning Christian doctrine in favor of the teachings of the philosophers. He taught, “Nothing which is at variance with the tradition of the apostles and of the church is to be accepted as true.” He was tortured so severely for his boldness that he died shortly after his release in AD 254.
“NOTHING NEW UNDER THE SUN”
Just because Gnostisim, Marcionism and Montanism are not currently threatening the integrity of the Christian faith, does not mean that there are not similar heretical and anti-Christian beliefs that presently exist. King Solomon once wrote, “There is nothing new under the sun. Is there a thing of which it is said, ‘See, this is new?’ It has been already in the ages before us” (Ecc. 1:9-10).
Below I have listed several general characteristics of cults that currently exist and have shown how the three main heretical groups of the 2nd and 3rd century also match these descriptions. The outline I use can be found in Dr. Stan May’s (Professor of Missions at Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary) notes on The World Religions.
1) Charismatic Leader-Sole Authority Figure
- Marcionism and Montanism
2) Extrabiblical Revelation
- Montanism
3) Criticism of others
- All three think their way is right and all others are wrong.
4) Redefinition of terms
- All three use biblical language but differ from the Christian faith when defining these terms.
5) Deny the Biblical View of Christ and/or bodily resurrection
- Gnostism and Marcionism
6) Reject parts or the whole of Scripture
- All three (Parts)
7) Salvation is works-based
- Montanism
8) Deny the Biblical View of the Trinity
- Montanism
Today many people are being led away from churches into the hands of anti-Christian cults because they are ignorant of the biblical and historical teachings of the Christian faith. As a result, they are unable to differentiate between orthodox Christianity and anti- Christian beliefs and practices.
May our church leaders become more like that of Iranaeus who devoted his entire ministry to equipping believers and refuting heresy. Also, may we as believers learn the biblical and historical teachings of the Christian faith to avoid being carried away by any and every wind of doctrine (Eph. 4:14).
